Bahl, Roy “Metropolitan Fiscal Disparities,” Cityscape: A Journal of Policy Development and Research, Vol. 1, No. 1, Washington, DC: US Department of Housing and Urban Development, August 1994, pp. 293-306.
This article describes the problems that cities face in maintaining fiscal capacity. Bahl covers the following topics: social service provision, tax base capacity, government bureaucracy, infrastructure maintenance requirements.

Borgos, Michael F. “An Approach to Statistical Methods in Fiscal Impact Analysis,” Journal of the American Planning Association, Washington, DC: April 1979.
Borgos explores the use of regression and curve-fitting analysis to empirical development and fiscal impact data. He notes that these techniques offer several advantages to the conventional approach, including enabling communities to use incremental instead of average cost data, direct computation of tax rate impacts, and orientation toward cumulative growth patterns. This is expecially good for analyzing growth management measures.

Shepard C. and Bruce A. Weber, “Growth and Residential Property Taxes: A Model for Estimating Direct and Indirect Population Impacts,” Land Economics, August 1982, pp. 325-337.
The authors explore the notion that population growth increases property taxes. They develop an approach that improves upon existing property tax impact models by widening the scope of determinants. They suggest that their model could be used by local governments to calculate costs, and conclude that there are multiple impacts on different types of housing and homeowners.

Burchell Robert W. and David Listokin, “Land, Infrastructure, Housing Costs, and Fiscal Impacts Associated with Growth: The Literature on the Impacts of Traditional Versus Managed Growth,” prepared for Alternatives to Sprawl Conference, Washington, DC: The Brookings Institution, Lincoln Institute of Land Policy, National Trust for Historic Preservation, 22 March 1995.
This paper examines the impacts of growth management experiences by looking at the following impacts: infrastructure costs, housing costs, land consumption, fiscal impacts. Burchell relies on existing literature to draw his conclusions. He begins by contrasting typical suburban development with more managed development which features clustered housing and commercial areas, preservation of open space, reduced infrastructure costs, etc. He then discusses forces of growth, starting with economic growth, in which, in an ideal condition, “infrastructure is in place where needed....further, there are reasonable relationships between existing and new growth...and there is an equitable balance of income groups paralleling job opportunities throught the region.” In the traditional sprawl development, however, the competition for market share leads to inefficiency, examples of which include commericial and industrial development location designed to maximize vehicular access but nearly always at the periphery of Metro areas. This becomes associated with demand for infrastructure. Increased costs result -- having to do with providing new infrastructure and maintaining the old infrastructure of abandoned areas, causing a regional rise in the cost of doing business in the region. In the short run, Burchell asserts that this is not bad because it maximizes individual economic benefit. Planned growth channels growth to efficiently-served locations and reduces long-term costs. Regarding infrastructure costs, Burchell reviews costs of providing infrastructure literature, including Frank’s ULI review and others. However, he doesn’t discuss broader social costs such as regional economic equity, etc. To sum up his conclusions: Land consumption -- planned dev consumes 40% as much land as sprawl dev., 60% agri. acreage and 17% the level of dev. on frail lands; Infrastructure -- planned dev is 75% as expensive for roads, 95% w/ respect to schools, 85% w/ respect to utilities, parity with others; Housing -- doesn’t increase costs, may yield small <6% savings; Fiscal Impact -- planned dev. is less costly on annual basis to both municipality and school district by 2%, requires less cap expenditure (about 3%) for school districts.

Burchell (principal investigator), Robert W. et. al., Impact Assessment of the New Jersey Interim State Development and Redevelopment Plan (Executive Summary), New Jersey Office of State Planning (OSP), 28 February 1992.
This study looks at the impacts of the New Jersey growth management plan which recommended denser development as an important step towards improving the state’s economy. The findings include: $400 million in savings to municipalities; $1.4 billion saved over 20 years; 130,000 acres not developed; sprawl requires 28% more farmland, 67% more other vacant land; 80% of environmentally sensitive and prime agricultural land would be saved; water pollution would decrease by 40%. As a result, this study supports the original recommendations of the state plan.
This report compares traditional (TREND) and planned (IPLAN) development projections for the state of New Jersey, assessing them in the context of five Impact Assessment categories: Economic, Environmental, Infrastructural, Community Life, and Intergovernmental Coordination. Economically, the report finds that planned development will shift far more jobs to urban areas, as well as create savings in provision of public services. Environmentally, IPLAN consumes far fewer acres of land (particularly frail and agricultural land) and offers a reduction in most water pollutants. The major savings are in infrastructure, as IPLAN requires much less road construction, provides greater access to existing transit services, and allows for more efficient sewer and water hookup. According to the Quality of Community Life index, initial decreases in QOL in IPLAN (compared to fringe)areas would be reversed over time as communities are restored.

Chernick Howard and Andrew Reschovsky, “Urban Fiscal Problems: Coordinating Actions Among Governments,” prepared for Metropolitan Assembly on Urban Problems: Linking Research to Action Conference, Chicago, IL: Center for Urban Affairs and Policy Research, Northwestern University, 30 September - 2 October 1994.
Chernick’s article discusses fiscal capacity. In it, he discusses how to measure a metro area’s fiscal health, how this depends on everything from the services it can maintain to the revenues it can bring in. In central cities, low fiscal capacity is thenorm because these areas tend to have high public service burdens, the loss of middle to upper income residents, degraded land value, the inability to attract major employers, declining funding from goveernment agencies, and the tax exempt status of government entities, hospitals, religious, education, and cultural instittutions, etc. He then asks if fiscal disparities exacerbate conditions -- in a cyclical fashion, and explores this inconclusively. He also assesses the effectiveness of efforts to boost cities and notes that they are uneven performers - some even do more harm than good. The question of whether there is a suburban bias in transportation funding is raised, but not answered.

Cuthbertson, I. D. “Fiscal Impact of New Town Development: An Empirical Study of Reston, West Springfield, and Fairfax County, Virginia,” Urban Land, 35, no. 1, 1976, pp. 5-12.
The author compares the fiscal health and outlook of a traditional "bedroom" community (West Springfield) and a "new town" of mixed uses (Reston) in Fairfax County, Virginia. Seperating out West Springfield's higher education expenditures, Cuthbertson's fiscal analysis showed Reston to be a $1 million asset to the County, compared to West Springfield's $500,000 deficit. The author detailed how Reston was able to generate a much larger real estate tax revenue from its industrial/commercial tax base, which also allowed the city to keep its tax rate relatively low. Cuthbertson concludes (from a Fairfax County point of view) that sound fiscal policy would encourage mixed-use development and that the traditional philosophy that residential development "pays its own way" is misguided.

De Witt, Karen “Older Suburbs Struggle to Compete with New: Aging Towns Gain Cities’ Problems,” The New York Times, 26 February 1995.
Some of Cleveland’s grand old suburbs are now experiencing decline, as efforts to maintain infrastructure, shcools, and other services get increasingly more expensive and competition for homebuyers grows from new suburbs. This article discusses the efforts of citizens in Lakewood, East Cleveland, and other older Cleveland suburbs, where the wealthy and powerful once lived. Tom Bier predicts that outmigration will not cease, unless strong steps are taken to promote development near the centralk city. Timothy Hagan, president of Cuyahoga County Commissioners, believes that outmigration is facilitattes by highway widening, and that the state legislature’s decision to expand Interstate 90 will have this effect. Such a move will make it easier for suburban commuters to live in suburbs and commute to work fromanother county.

Fisher, Kimberly M. “Adequate Public Facilities Ordinances: Evolution and Response to Economic Downturns,” Washington, DC: Texas Transportation Institute, Federal Highway Administration (202.366.4054 or fax 202.366.3713), November 1994.
Research conducted while working at Urban Land Institute. This paper discusses the popularity of Adequate public facility ordinances (APFOs) in promoting growth management. This paper reviews case suties and other research to show that they can be very complex and burdensome to administer, but that they can help communities plan infrastructure better.

Orfield, Myron “Metropolitics: A Regional Agenda for Community and Stability”, (1994 draft -- forthcoming).
Orfield analyzes demographic and geographic trends that indicate the progression of suburban sprawl, outmigration, and the spread of urban pathologies in the minneapolis st. Paul area. He makes the case that federal subsidization and policy drives investment to be made at the periphery of urban areas and that this trend continues as city centers and inner ring suburbs decline. Orfield contends that the destabilization effect of increasing poverty on schools and communities generates a flight of middle-class families (and the tax base they provide) at the same time these communities need them to prop up the increased demand for social services. Ironically, the new areas the middle class flees to often lack the capacity to handle their arrival and public services there decline as well. The third variable in this equation, the upper-income suburbs, tend to capture the benefits of regional growth and become more homogeneous, exclusive, and isolated. The entire region suffers, as infrastructure becomes more expensive to maintain, urban problems spread, and the center deteriorates. Orfield offers six reforms attempting to reintegrate metropolitan regions trapped in this cycle, including the promotion of more affordable housing in suburbs, shared property-tax bases, growth management, and transportation reform.

Richardson H. W. and P. Gordon, “Economic and Fiscal Impacts of Metropolitan Decentralization: The Southern California Case,” Environment and Planning , A 11, 1979, pp. 643-654.
Richardson and Gordon use the Lowry land-use model to examine possible employment, population, and public expenditure effects arising from either an infusion of new employment into a suburban area or a transfer of employment from an urban core to a suburb. The findings of the study are: that core-job decline effects the entire central city, and that attracting new employment to suburbs from outside the region benefits not only that suburb(s) but the central city as well in a spatial-multiplier process. Thus the authors conclude that central cities should cooperate with their suburbs in attracting industries from other regions, directing them to inner suburbs to mitigate the spatial-multiplier effect.

Robinson, ed., Susan K., Financing Growth: Who Benefits, Who Pays, and How Much? Chicago: Government Finance Research Center of the Government Finance Officers Association, 1990.
Robinson edits a volume of papers that emerged from a conference on growth. She and others discuss the extra burden that growth places on the already-strained revenue raising abilities of municipalities. They discuss the financial dimensions, political feasibility of actions, social costs of continued sprawl, and the breakdown of where the greatest burden of costs lie. Growth is addressed generically, not as different archetypes.

Rusk, David, Cities Without Suburbs, Washington, DC: The Woodrow Wilson Center Press, 1993.
Rusk examines the social, demographic, and economic dimensions of metropolitan growth over the past forty years and argues that cities that have been able to extend their authority, boundaries, and influence (elastic cities) have fared much better by all indices than those cities that have remained wedded to geographic constraints, class and racial segregation, and fragmented governmental structures (inelastic cities). Elastic cities have been able to capture a significant degree of suburban growth within municipal boundaries and have thus been able to retain a larger revenue base, enabling them to revitalize core areas. Rusk offers a number of possible approaches to "stretching" cities, including a national "urban triage", creation of metro government (general purpose and regional) structures to empower urban jurisdictions, and a federal urban policy offering incentives for municipal reorganization and requirements towards that end on grant programs.

Sagalyn, Lynne B. “Public Capital Investment: Patterns of Local Accommodation,” Land Lines, Vol. 6, No. 6, Cambridge, MA; Lincoln Institute of Land Policy, November 1994.
This article discusses the new boom in public capital outlays and how that has impacted state and local governments. It notes that the fiscal capacity of these areas, however, is declining with increased regulatory and social service burdens, and bureaucracy. The author also notes that this trend tends to favor suburban and relatively affluent areas at the expense of low-income urban areas.

Sharkey, Mary Anne “Lakewood Schools Learn a Lesson,” The Plain Dealer, Cleveland, OH, 10 May 1995.
Lakewood residents are realizing that incrasing their property taxes to improve their schools is a crucial step to preserving property values -- otherwise, schools will decline and will be unattractive to prospective homebuyers in the region. Sharkey notes that the issue of a school levy divided residents betwwen older citizens, who fought the increase and have less interest in improving schools or maintaining property value, and baby boomers, who care both about schools and property values.