The Distribution of Subsidized Housing in Cuyahoga County, Cleveland, OH: Cuyahoga Metropolitan Housing Authority, September 1993.
This is a compendium of data relating rental and subsidized housing in the Cuyahoga County region. It includes the distribution of said housing by census tract and statistical planning area.

Adler, Jerry, “Bye-Bye Suburban Dream,”Newsweek, May 15, 1995.
This article contends that communities across America have becomed disillusioned with the promise of suburban living because of the associated social, environmental, and economic costs. Instead, the article highlights a number of solutions that have been widely discussed and tested around the nation.

Audirac Ivonne and Maria Zifou, Urban Development Issues: What is Controversial in Urban Sprawl? An Annotated Bibliography of Often-Overlooked Planning Literature, Bureau of Economic and Business Research, College of Business Administration, University of Florida, October 1989.
This bibliography is an attempt by the authors to provide a summary of often overlooked literature to provide a more “objective appraisal” of the concept of urban sprawl. Entries are classified by their subject matter and discipline. Audirac and Zifou include sources that object to traditional sprawl opponents and their advocacy of compact, higher density development on a number of levels.

Barnett, Jonathan, The Fractured Metropolis: Improving the New City, Restoring the Old City, Reshaping the Region, New York: IconEditions, 1995.
Barnett explores suburban development and the psychological and social disjoint between "old" (central) and "new" (edge) cities that has been the result. He places much of the onus on outmoded planning regulations and development patterns "forcefed" on citizens by developers. He strongly emphasizes the role of a site-specific transportation system to reintegrate the two. Barnett feels new transportation investments (as well as other reintegrating measures) can be funded from the savings inherent in abandoning inefficient sprawl development and can work in combination with higher density, neo-traditional development and innovative policy approaches to recreate a sense of "community".

Beaumont, Constance E., How Superstore Sprawl Can Harm Communities: And What Citizens Can Do About It, Washington, DC: National Trust for Historic Preservation, 1994.
This is a book that discusses the issues driving superstore development (WalMart, etc.) and how it contributes to sprawl. It argues that communities have choices about economic development, and that superstores are not neccessary for the financial well being of municipalities. It also is an advocacy and grassroots mobilizing guide complete with media strategy, information, case studies, and contacts.

Bier, Thomas, “Future Development of Cuyahoga County and the Cleveland/Akron/Lorain Region,” Cleveland, OH.
Bier argues that Cuyahoga County must constantly add real estate value through new development in order to maintain its tax base given the depreciation of existing housing and commercial stock. since most development occurs at the periphery of the metro area, people have moved outward to take advantage of stable municipalities located at the fringe. Much development has occurred outside the county, including 55% of new homes built, three times as many industrial firms, 68% of county homesellers move further out - increasingly to another county, 40% of homebuyers in adjacent counties came from Cuyahoga County. Now that the county has little undeveloped land, Bier asserts that the key to maintaining its fiscal capacity is the redevelopment of previosuly developed areas. Without the maintainance of older areas, outmigration will continue to the detriment of the county and region. Steps should be taken to promote industrial, commerical, and residential activiies to remain in the county, preferably near the cener. The state government could play a large role in promoting redevelopment. He cites highway improvements funds as one way to rehabilitate the core.

Bier, Thomas and Ivan Maric, Cuyahoga County Outmigration, Cleveland, OH: The Urban University Program of the Ohio General Assembly, the Ohio Board of Regents and the Cuyahoga County Planning Commission, March 1993.
This report presents information on homeowners in the county who have purchased another home in the seven-county region surrounding Cleveland. The findings are:

1. Homesellers move to different communities -- 25% to another county,
2. 71% move away from the metropolitan core,
3. They buy more expensive homes.

Bier, Thomas, Collaborative Research Project Involving Seven Ohio Urban Universities, “Suburbanization of Ohio Metropolitan Areas 1980-2000,” The Urban University Program of the Ohio General Assembly and the Ohio Board of Regents, 27 June 1990.
This report looks at housing development patterns in the seven major metro areas of Ohio in 1980, 1990, and 2000. (projected). The trend is movement to suburbs, and the report recommends that the state examine the ways in which it promotes outmigration -- through highways, mortage assistance for first-time buyers and school funding, public utilities that force existing rate payers to pay more to subsidize new facilites. Central cities could asses their ability to accommodate new high-value housing over the next few decades and identify obstacles to that goal. They also need to examine and take steps on the reasons why people leave central cities or why they are prevented from moving closer. Metro areas should review housing construction projections; carefully plan transportation, sewer, water, and other infrastructure changes; examine demographic changes; and develop a preferrred vision for devlopment over the next several decades.

Bier, Thomas and The Ohio Housing Research Network, Moving Up and Out: Government Policy and the Futuer of Ohio’s Metropolitan Areas, Cleveland, OH: The Urban University Program of the Ohio General Assembly and the Ohio Board of Regents, 19 September 1994.
This study shows that in Ohio’s major metro areas,

1. Most home sellers move up in price at least 50% when they buy a new home,
2. Most move outward,
3. They do so because they don’t have much choice given capital gains tax codes and the availability of more valuable housing,
4. The seven cities studies vary in all of these factors,
5. Outmigration will contribute to urban decline and suburban sprawl,
6. More high-priced housing at the core is necessary for the well-being of metro areas.

Bier, Thomas and The Ohio Housing Research Network, “The IRS Homeseller Capital Gain Provision: Contributor to Urban Decline,” Cleveland, OH: The Urban University Program of the Ohio General Assembly and the Ohio Board of Regents, 5 January 1994.
This contains a review of the IRS Code (Section 1034) that allows homesellers to defer tax liability on capital gain so long as the next home purchased is at least equal in price to the one sold. This code, combined with the lack of valuable real estate in central cities, limits peoples’ options to move closer into the city, thus promotes outmigration. The methodology was looking at the data covering homeselling in Ohio’s seven major metro areas.

Bourne, L. “Self-Fulfilling Prophecies? Decentralization, Inner City Decline, and the Quality of Urban Life,” Journal of the American Planning Association, Vol. 58, 1992, pp. 509-513.
Bourne critiques an earlier APA article (Gordon, Richardson, and Jun’s “The Commuting Paradox”) which had expressed support for the decentralization of housing and businesses, asserting that this process was most economically efficient for firms and had reduced commuting times for employees. Bourne takes issue with these assertions as well as the underlying notion that the impacts that have been percieved as social costs arising from the growth of edge cities will be addressed by an unfettered market. Bourne explains much of the "efficiency of decentralization" argument away as laissez-faire optimism and focus on the wrong evaluative variables.

Breckenfield, G. “Downtown Has Fled to the Suburbs,” Fortune, Vol. 86, 1972.
Breckenfield describes the “new” phenomenon of the super shopping mall. Largely a by-product of decentralization and federal highway projects, these malls are touted as both a “new urban form” and the “piazza of America” by developers, at least for suburbanites no longer near or inclined to visit open public space. Breckenfield’s characterization of the mall’s “comforts” and its “sea” of free parking support his assertion that, unlike traditional core business districts, suburban malls are directly attuned to the age of the private auto. The author marvels over the size and scope of many developments and concludes these centers may be the cornerstone of the new American community.

Ewing, Reid H. “Characteristics, Causes, and Effects of Sprawl: A Literature Review,” Environmental and Urban Issues, Winter 1994, FAU/FIU Joint Center, pp. 1-15.
Ewing proposes a definition of “sprawl” by critiquing archetypes, and noting that sprawl is both a matter of degree and multidimensional. He further notes that sprawl patterns themselves are not the problem -- rather, it is the impacts that they engender. Ewing then defines sprawl as characterized by poor accessibility between land uses, and proposes that the measure of accessibility be the yardstick for determining sprawl. Also, he notes that this approach can be easily operationalized to fit into existing analytical frameworks (e.g. the four-step model, Florida Standard Urban Trans. Model Structure, etc.). Sprawl is also characterized by the lack of usable public open space. Ewing then discusses the causes of sprawl as a natural outgrowth of prosperity, technology, low transportation costs, and high travel speeds. He also notes that market forces drive sprawl through land speculation, the availability of low-cost land, and policies that favor driving. He notes, “In effect, market imperfections define sprawl and provide the justification for public intervention to discourage sprawl.” In reviewing the costs of sprawl literature, Ewing discusses psychic costs, excess travel and congestion, energy inefficiency and air pollution, higher infrastructure and public service costs, and land loss. His conclusion: the Florida Department of Consumer Affairs has developed a promising list of sprawl indicators that will help planners attack the characteristics, effects, and causes of sprawl.

Fernandez, Roberto “Spatial Mismatch: Housing, Transportation, and Employment in Regional Perspective,” prepared for Metropolitan Assembly on Urban Problems: Linking Research to Action Conference, Chicago, IL: Center for Urban Affairs and Policy Research, Northwestern University, 30 September - 2 October 1994.
This paper summarizes the research performed on spatial mismatch. This hypothesis argues that the limited housing choices of low-income people and people of color compromises their ability to secure employment because increasingly, job creation is concentrated outside their communities, mostly to suburbs. He discusses the extent to which the theory can be supported with empirical evidence. Recent literature reviews generally support the affirmative -- and that recent evidence is stronger than older ones. He also reviews policies that seek to ameliorate the effects of spatial mismatch and identifies three strategies for doing this:

1. Creating incentives so that employers locate near low-income communities,
2. Leveraging the housing market so that more low-income people can move to the suburbs, and
3. Improve access and mobility to jobs (reverse commute, etc.). Fernandez recommends the pursuit of a combinatoin of all three.

Frank, James E., The Costs of Alternative Development Patterns: A Review of the Literature, Washington, DC: Urban Land Institute, 1989.
This useful review of the costs of sprawl summarizes and analyzes a number of studies relating to the “costs of sprawl,” and concludes that nearly all are supportive of the notion that sprawl costs are greater than those of other (typically denser) developments. He also notes the mechanisms through which the costs of sprawl are masked.

Gordon, Peter, Harry W. Richardson, and Myung-Jin Jun, “The Commuting Paradox: Evidence from the Top Twenty,” Journal of the American Planning Association, Autumn 1991, Volume 57, Number 4.
The authors compare data from the American Housing Survey with 1980 census data to determine that commuting times fell during that period in the twenty larges US cities. They call the popular contention that congestion is increasing “a myth” or paradox.

Jackson, K. T. “The Effect of Suburbanization on the Cities,” in Surburbia: The American Dream and Dilemma, P. Dolce, ed., Garden City, NY: 1976.
Jackson describes what he feels to be suburbanization’s most negative consequence--the decline of the sense of “community”. Jackson explains that suburbanites have disconnected themselves from urban cores, foregoing their renewal and the amenities they have to offer, and turned away from cooperation and coordination with the cities from which they exact their wealth. He offers four reasons for this: residential polarization of urban areas by race and income; the decline of municipal annexation; the dominance of the automobile; and home-centered entertainment and the lack of communal interaction. Jackson states that “suburban” today implies a distinction from rather than affiliation with the urban, and recommends not only an economic investment in the cities but an intellectual and moral one as well.

Jackson, Kenneth, Crabgrass Frontier, New York: Oxford University Press, 1985.
Classic history of suburbanization. Shows a strong link between the development of outlying areas and the lack of development and investment in urban areas.

Janelle, Donald G. “Metropolitan Expansion and the Communications....”
Janelle advances the notion of telecommunication technology in the post-industrial society and the potential functional and spatial implications for metropolitan regions and productive life. Janelle acknowledges this technology may support existing exurban dispersal but argues behavioral constraints will "set outer limits to physical seperation from metropolitan life". In this event, Janelle views transportation technologies as more fundamental to urban form than communication technologies, and he contends transportation planning must accomodate the continued decentralization likely to occur due to these improvements in mobility and communication.

Jaquay, Robert, “Urban Sprawl: What’s Happening to the Core of Cleveland?” Affinity, A Collaboration of People with Environmental Concerns,
Cleveland, OH, Summer 1994.
This article describes how particular post-World War II federal investments have opened up vast tracts of land on the fringes of Cleveland to development and injured the central core of the city. Jaquay explains how interstate highway development in the region led to the development of edge cities as sources of manufacturing, employment and commerce over ten counties in northern Ohio. Because population in the region is not expected to change in the near future, Jaquay characterizes the future of Cleveland as a rearranging of activity and wealth to the city’s detriment.

Kasowski, Kevin “The Costs of Sprawl, Revisited,” Developments, Vol. 3, No. 2, The National Growth Management Leadership Project, September 1992.
Kasowski begins this article by detailing the additional costs sprawling development adds to state budgets as well as to housing prices. Because many of these costs arise from "off-site" (i.e. service provision), they are external and borne by society. Effectively, Kasowski argues, sprawl is subsidized by policies such as average cost pricing, which ignores the higher marginal costs of service provision in far-flung areas. Kasowski concludes that this de-facto subsidization of sprawl could be replaced by the use of impact fees (which in current practice are also assessed on an average cost basis) or least-cost development, which would transfer the savings from higher density, transit oriented patterns to the rate bases of public service providers.

Kinsley Michael J. and L. Hunter Lovins, “Paying for Growth, Prospering from Development,” Snowmass, CO: Rocky Mountain Institute, 1995.
The authors argue that sprawl isn’t the only solution to econmic growth for communities -- that they need not grow geographically to have a robust, sustainable economy. Currently, man ycommunities across the country don’t realize that growth must come with sprawl, and therefore allow superstores, edge development and other thingsto occur. They note that communities often are willing to subsidize sprawl in anticipation that in the long term the economy will be buoyed by development. Ways to remedy this are available, but haven’t been exercised on a large scale. Impact and user fees is one way to do this, but only captures some of the social costs of sprawl. They then introduce the Institue’s vision of sustainable community development, which emphasizes the role of natural resources, compatible business opportunities, equity, economnic and resource efficiency, and other measures.

Mills, David E. “Growth, Speculation and Sprawl in a Monocentric City,” Journal of Urban Economics, 10, 1981, pp. 201-226.
Mills argues that sprawl is engendering an economic theory. Mills puts forth a model based on a combination between the “monocentric-city model” and real life land use patterns.

Mills, Edwin S. and John F. McDonald, “Sources of Metropolitan Growth,” New Brunswick, NJ: Center for Urban Policy Research, Rutgers University, 1992.
A collection of papers presented at a symposium on metropolitan growth and development held in 1989. This diverse collection represents economists, geographers, and public administrators, with a common emphasis on spatial orientation.

Moe, Richard “Growing Wiser: Finding Alternatives to Sprawl,” prepared for the Alternatives to Sprawl Conference, Washington, DC: The Brookings Institution, National Trust for Historic Preservation, Lincoln Land Institute, 22 March 1995.
This speech discusses sprawl in the context of historic preservation. Moe touches upon federal and state subsidies of sprawl, its social costs, the types of spaces created in sprawl, and the fact that communities have choices when it comes to development. He discusses instruments to fight sprawl, including tax policy, urban growth boundarioes, smart growth, and zoning.

O’Conner, Kevin and Dr. Edward J.Blakeley, “Suburbia Makes the Central City: A New Interpretation of the City-Suburb Relationships,” Berkeley, CA: Institute of Urban and Regional Development, University of California, 1988.
The authors take an optimistic view of metropolitan spatial relations, arguing that urban cores can recapture their vitality as coordinators of regional economic activity. The position of suburbs as powerful socio-economic systems apart from cores, underscores their permanace to O’Conner and Blakely, as well as the futility of policies designed solely to limit suburban growth. They assert that suburban growth is no longer driven by population decentralization but rather economic expansion, and that this expansion creates increased demand for other services specific to the urban core.

Pilla, Bishop Anthony M., “The Church in the City,” Cleveland, OH: Diocese of Cleveland, 19 November 1993.
This document is an unprecedented statement against the costs of sprawl, made by Archbishop Anthony Pilla (based in Cleveland, OH). The rationale for this statement is multi-dimensioinal. First, many Catholic churches are losing followers in urban areas. Second, the urban areas that do remain have faced dramatic decline in certain cities, especially Cleveland. Third, the Bishop is convinced that outmigration and sprawl development plays a strong role in luring people out of the central city. Cleveland activist Len Calebrese helped develop this position.

Popenoe, David, “Urban Sprawl: Some Neglected Sociological Considerations,” Sociology and Social Research , Vol. 63, No. 2, 1979, pp. 255-268.
Popenoe argues that the social costs of life in the suburbs include racial and economic segregation, inequitable distribution of social services, the regressive subsidization of sprawl, outmigration, tax base erosion in the central city, and cumbersome administrative structures. Hardest hit are teenagers, women, and the poor, aging, and disabled. Lack of access to nature is also cited as a cost of sprawl, and transportation, access and mobility are also discussed as being suboptimal.

Richmond, Henry R., “The Prospects for Land Use Reform in America: Storm Clouds or Silver Lining?” speech, delivered to the Greenspace Alliance, Philadelphia Museum of Art, Philadelphia, PA, 29 September 1994.
In this speech, Richmond discusses four issues: trends that drive sprawl, who is affected by sprawl, how reforms will ripple throughout society, and how coalition building is important to combat sprawl. Trends are outmigration, expansion of metro areas, consequent loss of farmland, etc. Autodependency is discussed as a transit-precluding development form. Sprawl’s social costs are also covered (air, congestion, energy, water). Richmond notes we must start dealing with land use as the source of the problem rather than the symptoms. Disinvestment in urban areas is also cited as problem, and Richmond describes the dilemma that many developers face when deciding where to build projects.

Rotella, et. al., Governor’s Task Force on Urban Growth Patterns, Tallahassee, Florida, June 1989.
This groundbreaking report tackled the difficult question of where and how growth in Florida should take place. It begins by acknowledging the financial, social, and environmental burdens that traditional development patterns have placed on the state, as well as the need to replace these with more efficient, compact, and planned models. The report examined eight study areas in the state, assessing capital and operating costs of service provision, environmental costs, revenues attributable to development, and demographic trends. The bulk of the report focuses on forty policy and planning recommendations for growth management in Florida. These fall under six major target goals for the state: combatting urban sprawl, creating a state urban policy, enhancing the urban environment, land acquisition of sensitive and open space, improved intergovernmental coordination, and enhancing transportation systems and urban mobility.

Tucker, C. Jack, “City-Suburban Population Redistribution: What Data from the 1970’s Reveal?” Urban Affairs Quarterly, Vol.19, no.4, June 1984, pp.539-549.
Tucker reinforces the conventional wisdom about increasing decentralization and sprawl with an evaluation of demographic data from the 1960’s and 70’s. He acknowledges and deflates the notion that in the early 1980’s young suburbanites began returning to central urban areas. Tucker discovered that in the aggregate, census data examined shows that older industrial Northern cities will continue to lose population to the suburbs, and that for the entire country, cities and suburbs will lose residents to non-metro areas. Tucker concludes by issuing a warning for the impending decline of older suburbs to the economic and demographic character of the cores they surround.

Weitz, Steve, et.al.,Metropolitan Development Patterns: What Difference Do They Make? Office of Policy Development and Research, U.S. Dept. of Housing and Urban Development, November 1980.
This report of an Urban Institute study of the late 1970’s purports to answer questions about the costs of sprawl and if changes in development patterns would have a significant effect on the nation’s economic, energy, and environmental goals. The paper contains a number of arguments (cheaper and more energy-efficient houses on the fringe, shorter work trips to new suburban job locales, better air quality away from industrial facilities, increasingly efficient cars) indicating sprawl may not be as detrimental as many assert. The general finding of the report, after examination of the effects of higher density development on travel behavior, air and water quality, energy use, and “economic costs”, is that the costs of structuring land use to locate housing and productive activity primarily in urban cores would be prohibitive. The authors also assert the superiority of regulatory and pricing policies over land use controls in obtaining energy conservation and environmental quality.