“The Competitive Metropolis: Do America’s Growth Patterns Work?” Developments, Vol. 1, No. 3, The National Growth Management Leadership Project, December 1990.
This article from NGMLP contends that areas that are well integrated to include high-priced and moderately-priced housing, as well as other factors, are more likely to remain competitive and robust than other areas. They cite the “great household revolution,” which represents the changing demographics of suburbia, as a determinative factor. The revolution consists of increasing households, typically single parent, and more empty nesters. They recommend progressive housing policies and other programs to improve the economic health of communities.

Cameron, Michael W. Efficiency and Fairness on the Road, Oakland, CA: Environmental Defense Fund, 1994.
Cameron analyzes transportation modeling and fiscal impact data to determine the level of transportation cost and benefit distribution different parts of the population experience (by income quintile). He uses a spreadsheet model to determine the progressive impact of a 5-cent per mile roadway user fee, which would then be redistributed to service other transportation alternatives. He also calculates estimated environmental benefits.

Cook, “The Competitive Metropolis: Do America’s Growth Patterns Work?” Developments Vol. 1, No. 3, The National Growth Management Leadership Conference.
The author details the lack of affordable housing available to those working in the “suburban office park” and how this has contributed to longer commutes, growing congestion, and increased air pollution. Beyond “quality of life” factors, Cook explains how the biggest challenge posed by spatial mismatch may be economic: post-industrial America has been developed on the metropolitan fringe, away from reasonably priced labor. Without nearby affordable housing for the changing face of America’s labor force, the inputs necessary to make these enterprises viable may be unaccessable.

Coulton, Claudia, Julian Chow, Edward Wang, and Marilyn Su, “Geographic Concentration of Affluence and Poverty in 100 Metropolitan Areas, 1990,” DRAFT, Cleveland, OH:Center for Urban Poverty and Social Change, Mandel School of Applied Social Sciences, Case Western Reserve University, April 1995.
The paper begins with a short analysis of spatial concentration of both the poor and affluent, examining the factors that have contributed to the segregation of the two and differences acoording to ethnicity or place-specific factors such as age of city and rate of out-migration. The authors identify the three major factors affecting both the concentration of poverty and affluence--residential segregation of minorites, regional economic conditions, and the equality of opportunity between a city and its suburbs--and explain how the three work in combination to exacerbate economic segregation. The paper then uses census data for 100 MSA’s, characterizing them by affluence/poverty using a number of descriptive indices.

Fox, J. Charles, “Environmental and Social Justice Priorities in Transportation,” Washington, D.C. Human Environment Center 1992.
Article describes conflicting agendas of environmentalists and social justice advocates in transportation field. Fox argues that big public motor vehicle investments are bad for both and public transit investment benefits both. He also discusses instances in which environmental activists teamed up with poverty activists to oppose automobile-related building projects. Other topics include full cost accounting in transportation, pricing, parking, and mass transit. He concludes that through ISTEA, there can be improved communication between environmental and social justice groups. Tensions still exist, however. The National Urban League's 1991 "Marshall Plan for America" stressed need for "good highways mean good business and a strong economy" and attributes poor access to suburb jobs to unavailability of automobile. Lists leads for research material (TRB, Dept Energy's Minority Impact Program), as well as organizational contacts.

Geisler, Charles C. “Land and Poverty in the United States: Insights and Oversights,” Land Economics, Vol. 71, No. 1, February 1995, pp. 16-33.
Geisler notes that in this century, the linkage between poverty and land ownership has been lost in the poverty literature. He makes a case for including land in the poverty/wealth equation again, and proposes ways to do this. Income-based measures of poverty fall far short of getting at the plight of a household -- assets must also be considered. He also argues that more reserach should be done to strengthen this connection.

Hellwig, Maureen, Deborah Boldt, Stephen A. Perkins, and Greg Olson (ed.) Connections: Final Report on Reverse Commute Demonstration Project Chicago Center for Neighborhood Technology for Metra, Chicago's Commuter Rail Service , 17 December 1992.
Discusses CNT's reverse commute program in Chicago.

Hirschman, Ira, Spatial Equity and Transportation Finance: A Case Study of the New York Metropolitan Region, Ph.D. Dissertation, New Brunswick, NJ: Department of Urban Planning and Policy Development, 1991.
This case study of the New York metropolitan region analyzes the feasibility of a regional transportation financing fund and alternative funding sources to address the region's deteriorating transportation infrastructure. Hirschman examines the present distribution of costs and benefits in the region and finds financial burdens are disproportionately borne by the city, with benefits exceeding tax contributions in suburbs. The dissertation details the extent of revenue needed in an alternative funding source and assesses the viability of using a motor vehicle fuel tax, retail sales taxes, a payroll tax, business taxes, or highway user fees to meet said need. Hirschman concludes that any of the options would reduce spatial inequality more closely adhere to the benefit principle of taxation, but offers a mixed-tax package as a solution. This would provide a balanced revenue source by avoiding market distortions caused by major hikes in any one tax, while including the behavior discouraging character of fuel taxes and user fees and the equitable distribution of the sales, payroll, and business taxes.

Hodge, David “Social Impacts of Urban Transportation Decisions: Equity Issues,” in The Geography of Urban Transportation, Susan Hanson, ed., New York: The Guilford Press, 1986, pp. 301-327.
Hodge explores the various social equity questions associated with urban transportation. He characterizes the issues as basically of two types: the costs of (or exclusion from the benefits of) auto ownership, and the costs and obstacles posed by design and operation of mass transit systems. Hodge portrays transit as the more favorable of the two options, but then explores the potential for discrimination and inequity in making decisons about where and how mass transit will operate. Race, class, and spatial dispersions are also discussed in relation to the distribution of expenditures as well as access and mobility. Hodge turns to a case study of the Seattle METRO to further explore equity questions.

Hughes, Mark Alan with Julie E. Sternberg, The New Metropolitan Reality: Where the Rubber Meets the Road in Antipoverty Policy , Washington, D.C. Public Finance and Housing Center, The Urban Institute December 1992.
Discusses mismatch between urban employment needs and suburban jobs. Argues that transportation (mobility) is the link, the win-win solution. Discusses reverse commute and other programs that have been successful:

• ACCEL Transportation of Le Clair Court RMC (Chicago),
• Wisconsin Job-Ride Program (Milwaukee),
• Suburban JobLink Inc. (Chicago),
• SEPTA's Route 200 Series (Philadelphia), & others.

Micozzi, Martine and Peter Rowen, eds., and Andromeda Adame, Rakhi Basu, Nancy Bercow, Stephanie Eyestone, Nava Mashud, Samira Mehdian-Zakhor, Alex Meyerhoff, Ron Ovadenko, Gregegory Perry, Gilberto Ruiz, “Running on Empty: The Travel Patterns of Extremely Poor People in Los Angeles,” Washington, D.C. Transportation Research Board, 72nd Annual Meeting Paper No. 931138, 10-14 January 1993.
Examines travel patterns of public assistance recipients. Authors had difficulty getting data from public assistance agencies, so had to rely on interviews with people at shelters, homeless, those who were receiving general relief (GR) and other very poor people. Focused on General Relief, a form of public assistance that is considered the last resort in Calif -- admin by state but funded by counties -- minimum assistance. Section 17001 of Calif Welfare and Institutions Code says that "minimum assistance" includes allocations for food, housing, utilities, medical care, and transportation. Counties determine amount of payment. In LA, trans is deemed a "special need" and is not automatically included in benefits, but given at discretion of case workers.
Provides demographics of homeless in LA and profile of survey population. Had respondents fill out trip diaries. Modal and destination information collected. Found that 67% of respondents said there were places they wanted to go but couldn't get to. Walking primary mode -- 60% of daily trips made by foot -- avg was four trips per day. Next was transit -- avg monthly transit expend was $35 (nearly 10% of monthly income).
Policy recommendations are travel allowance strategies, implementation of the current DPSS travel allowance system, cash subsidies, bus passes, punch cards, smart cards.

National Commission on Urban Problems, Building the American City, New York: Praeger, 1969.
This report documents the social costs of highway construction -- notably, the displacement of households and businesses during the bulk of the highway construction period of the 1950s and 1960s. The authors note that compensation typically fell short of the costs of relocation, and that the vast majority of people impacted were poor, minority, and politically disenfrancised.

Santini, Danilo J. and Anant D. Vyas, “A Model to Assess the Relative Impact of Policy in Transportation Energy Expenditures,” Argonne, Illinois Argonne National Laboratory, Energy and Environmental Systems Division, Center for Transportation Research.
Study tries to see if assumption that white and minority populations are similarly affected by oil price increases are true. Examine income effects (1977-1983), substitution effects, household characteristics, sample characteristics, transportation adaptation (1977-1983), preliminary transportation demand submodels, vehicle holdings results, and vehicle-miles of travel per vehicle. No useful conclusions.

Sanyika, Mtangulizi K. and James W. Head,” Communities at Risk: Regional Transportation Issues in the Bay Area: The Concerns of Communities of Color and Low-Income Neighborhoods,” San Francisco National Economic Development and Law Center Issue Brief #6, August 1990.
Study focuses on transportation in low-income communities. Two deficiencies -- few efforts to document state of transportation services in communities and lack of community-based organizations that focus on transportation in such areas. As a result, public policy debate and benefits delivery don't address transportation concerns. The study also discusses the transportation characteristics of the poor and minorities. Transportation and employment is also covered, especially in the context of the Bay area evolution towards high-tech and business service economy.
Regarding transportation and community economic development, the Cypress Freeway in Oakland physicallly splits the community into east and west -- urban ghettos. The report also discusses child care and the environment. Recommendations include improving transit, lower fares, better coordination of schedules, better language service, reverse commute, need for regional trans coordination, economic development, environment and social impacts in poor communities need to be better understood, support pricing only if they are combined with benefits to poor communities, like better transit. Poor communities need to do own audit to reduce gridlock, improve child care, etc.