Altshuler, A., J. Womack and J. Pucher, “Land Use and Urban Development,” in The Urban Transportation System: Politics and Policy Innovation, Cambridge, MA: MIT Press, 1979, pp. 374-407.
The authors evaluate the strength of the correlation between transportation investment decisions and land use patterns, arguing that “sprawl” critics have oversimplified a number of points to portray a strong link. They repudiate a number of widely accepted ideas, such as the notion that federal policies and investments have encouraged decentralized development, that metropolitan transportation planning has lacked consistancy, and that there are consumer preferences for other types of housing and transportation. The article presents the general position and arguments of sprawl critics--it is inefficient, costly, and divisive--as well as the opposing points of its defenders, who contend that particular concerns and criticisms are overstated and fail to justify interference with the market mechanism. The summary concludes that existing transportation and spatial realites are an expression of societies’ preferences, and that transportation measures have such a limited effect on metropolitan development that deviation from the status quo--the “bountiful highway environment”--would be foolhardy.

Blakely, Edward J., “Shaping the American Dream: Land Use Choices for America’s Future,” Cambridge, MA: Lincoln Institute of Land Policy Working Paper, 1993.
This article notes that different forces are vying for status as land use determinants in America:

1. Globalization of metropolitan economies,
2. Mounting environmental and transportation concerns which drive new calls for national land use controls,
3. Foreign investment in housing and real estate,
4. Immigration, changing demographics, smaller households,
5. Urbanization of land (rural and open space).

Brand, Daniel "Research Needs for Analyzing the Impacts of Transportation on Land Use,” Transportation, Urban Form, and the Environment, Washington DC: Federal Highway Administration, 1991,
Brand offers a new paradigm for examining the interaction between transportation and land use that incorporates individual behavior. This paradigm inserts available resources and individual needs into the equation of individual land use and transportation consumption. Because of this "third variable", Brand argues that simply offering alternative development schemes as an attempt to reduce travel may be ineffective and that shifting some of the costs incurred by travel choices to individuals may be necessary. The paper concludes by offering seven options for future urban mobility that reduces congestion and environmental impacts, focusing on information access and technology improvements.

Breheny, ed., M. J. Sustainable Development and Urban Form, London: Pion, 1992.
This compilation of articles covers issues of environmental sustainability and urban form. See individual descriptions for relevant articles.

Burwell, David etc."Energy and Environmental Research Needs" Transportation, Urban Form, and the Environment, Washington DC: Federal Highway Administration, 1991,
This paper outlines the need for more extensive research to inform decision-making on five "high-priority" areas: individual trip generation decisions, investment decisions, financing, land-use planning, and development project selections. The authors go on to outline how transportation negatively effects land, air quality, and energy consumption and explains how these impacts can be addressed by providing increased information on their costs to decision makers.

Deakin, Elizabeth A., “Jobs, Housing and Transportation: Theory and Evidence on Interactions Between Land Use and Transportation,” Washington, DC: Transportation Research Board, National Research Council, 1991.
Deakin asserts that transportation planners are "in the land use business" and have a potentially major impact on the quality of metropolitan structure and life. She explains the inverse relationship between transportation costs and land value and the centralization of economic activity/dispersion of housing that results. Deakin concludes from empirical analysis that transportation development decisions have a major (but not the only) role to play in spurring economic growth, reducing pollution, and improving social equity

Downs, Anthony, New Visions for Metropolitan America, Washington, DC: The Brookings Institution, 1994.
Downs underscores the failings of the dominant low-density "vision", which not only exacts tremendous economic and social costs but also has conditioned American preferences toward the same patterns of development. Downs argues that the existing vision begs replacement due to its unsustainability and the "social inconsistancies" between what it promises and what it provides. He outlines many of the most pressing urban problems--economic and racial segregation, pollution, loss of open space, loss of revenue sources--and explains how each is closely linked to low density growth. From a transportation standpoint, Downs advocates moderate approaches--higher densities in both new and existing housing developments to reduce VMT's and market incentives to encourage voluntary concentration of jobs to promote public transit and ride sharing are two examples--given consumer preferences for driving alone. He also supports inclusion of affordable housing in new growth areas to bring regional land and housing prices into equilibrium and direct growth inward.

Dyett, Michael V. “Site Design and its Relation to Urban Form," Transportation, Urban Form, and the Environment, Washington DC: Federal Highway Administration, 1991.
This paper stresses the necessity of incorporating site-specific transportation plans into community development. Dyett offers that planners need to make mixed-use communities work at various scales, with appropriate design objectives, to strike the right balance with the existing environment, both natural and built.

Ewing, Reid, Mary Beth DeAnna, and Shi-Chiang Li, “Land-Use Impacts on Trip Generation Rates,” prepared for TRB Applicatoin of Planning Methods Conference, Seattle, Washington.
Authors note that traditional modeling exercises do not account for a number ofthings, including walking and bicycling. They suggest methods to reforming existing models.

Ewing, Reid, Padma Haliyur, and G. William Page, “Getting Around a Traditional City, a Suburban Planned Unit Development, and Everything in Between,” Transportation Research Record, 1466, Washington, DC: Transportation Research Board, 1994, pp. 53-62.
This study presents findings from the statistical analysis of data from six communities to see if there are relationships between location and land use, and household travel patterns. Conclusion: sprawl areas generate nearly two-thirds more more vehicle hours of travel per person than in traditional city design. the poor accessibility in sprawl areas is compensated for through trip chaining. Recommendations: developing facilities for pedestrians and transit isn’t enough to remedy access in the suburbs -- facilities and services must be integrated in communiteis to provide better access opportunities.

Giuliano, Genevieve “Land Use Impacts of Transportation Investments: Highway and Transit,” in The Geography of Urban Transportation, 2nd edition, Susan Hanson, ed., forthcoming (1995).
The author refutes the traditonal association of a consistant relationship between transportation investments and land development. Giuliano concludes from empirical evidence on a number of major metropolitan centers of similar transportation development history that land use changes do not follow investments, but rather are the result of dynamic and variable conditions specific to each locale. Giuliano uses elements of spatial mismatch theory to support this claim, arguing that the opposite effects transportation investment has on housing vs. business location mitigate the potential for transit oriented growth. The lack of a regional bound constraint, potential for political and community pressure, and the intricate transportation patterns already in place also support her critique of transportation as a precursor to development.

Giuliano, Genevieve, “Literature Synthesis: Transportation and Urban Form,” Washington, DC: Federal Highway Administration, October 1989.
This literature review examines the connection between transportation and land use.

Handy, Susan, “A Cycle of Dependence: Automobiles, Accessiblity, and the Evolution of the Transportation and Retail Heirarchies,” Berkeley Planning Journal, Vol.8, 1993, pp.21-43.
Handy explains the cyclical relationship between choice of transportation mode and retail accessibility; namely that automobiles were at some point chosen as the primary means of transit, after which retail and commercial facilities were designed with auto access in mind, which reinforces the initial transit choice. Further implications of this cycle are the collapse of the retail heirarchy (levels of stores differing by size, scope and location) and the decline of the central business district. This “cycle of dependency” also threatens to stamp out other means of transit, excluding those without access to autos, by the sheer amount of infrastructural resources devoted to it. Handy warns of the unsustainability of current accessibility patterns, and concludes with a mention of “neo-traditional development” and higher density settlement patterns as a way to combat current trends.

Hanson, Mark E. “Automobile Subsidies and Land Use: Estimates and Policy Responses,” APA Journal, Vol. 58, No. 1, Winter 1992, pp. 60-71.
The author discusses the variety of social costs, automobile-related subsidies, and other factors that drive land use development (also known as “sprawl”). He contends that the federal government’s direct subsidy of an automobile-oriented transportation system has blocked out other transportation opportunities. He also makes recommendations for reforming pricing policies to better reflect true social costs.

Hanson, Susan "Dimensions of the Urban Transportation Problem," in The Geography of Urban Transportation, Susan Hanson, ed., New York: The Guilford Press, 1986.
In this introductory chapter Hanson begins by explaaining how access and mobility lead to a symbiotic relationship between land use and transportation, with increased access necessary given that land uses are spatially disjoint and enhanced mobility contributing to an increase in that seperation. Hanson provides formulas for measuring both the accessability of places and the level of accessability available to people, and follows this with an overview of recent trends in residential and journey-to-work patterns. She finds that at the same time motor vehicle ownership and trip frequency and length has increased, there has been a rise in people with special transportation needs that have frequently not been met. Hanson also debunks the notion that metropolitan commuting is primarily suburb to central city and explains the effects this decentralization of workplaces has led to residential segregation, pollution, overburdened transportation systems, and problems of accessability and opportunities to jobs for the urban poor.

HansonSusan, ed., The Geography of Urban Transportation, New York: The Guilford Press, 1986.
This is the definitive compendium of writings on urban transportation and the geographic factors that effect it.

Holtzclaw, John “Using Residential Patterns and Transit to Decrease Auto Dependence and Costs,” San Francisco, CA: Natural Resources Defense Council, June 1994.
Holtzclaw analyzes data from communities in Northern California to derive equations governing the relationship between density, transit accessibility, and household travel. He concludes that there is a strong relationship between these factors, and argues that his findings support the case for location-efficient mortgages. LEMs enable homebuyers to amortize larger mortgages if they buy in location-efficient areas, the rationale being that they would have more cash in pocket to finance a more expensive home.

Lynch, Kevin, Good City Form, Cambridge, MA: MIT Press, 1981.
This comprehensive work takes into account a wide array of issues, including an historical overview of urban form and an evaluation of normative theory on “good” cities and what society wants and needs from its urban areas. Lynch than advances his own theory of a “good city form”, portrayed as a dynamic and comprehensive community with a sense of identity, a high degree of internal and external accessability, and a focus on efficiency and social justice in its essential functionings. The final section of the volume moves toward articulating this vision, taking on practical concerns such as land use, integrating the city into the natural environment, optimum sizes and population (and managing these), and relating urban forms to urban goals. Although ambitious and a bit unfocused, Lynch succeeds particularly in his incorporation of qualitative development into the idea of a better city.

Meyer J. R. and J. A. Gomez-Ibanez, Autos, Transit and Cities, Cambridge, MA: Harvard University, 1981.
The authors describe the evolution of American transportation patterns in the post-World War II era, emphasizing the policies and subsidies that contributed to the dominance of the automobile and the issues this reality has raised. The authors conclude that consumer prediliction for cars is economically rational and will continue, and their discussion of transportation reform is structured around this. They advocate reengineered (smaller, safer, more efficient) cars, ride-sharing, and investment in increased mass transit efficiency for short, intra-urban trips (which they feel to be its only natural market).

Muller, Peter O. “The Transformation of Bedroom Suburbia into the Outer City: An Overview of Metropolitan Structural Change Since 1947,” in Suburbia Reexamined, B.M. Kelly, ed., No. 78, New York: Greenwood Press, 1989.
Muller offers a history of urbanism, describing in particular how technological innovations such as the electric streetcar and particularly the automobile initiated flight from metropolitan cores and how economic and policy developments during the interwar years and after World War II turned this trickle into a mass exodus. Muller explains that the latter period saw an unprecedented expansion of retail and commercial activity to the formerly residential suburbs, to a degree in which they rivaled and in some cases surpassed urban business districts--due largely, he argues, to the coming of age of the auto and the development of high-speed freeways and urban circumferentials.

Muller, Thomas, “Economic Impacts of Land Development: Employment, Housing, and Property Values,” Washington: The Urban Institute, 1976.
Muller examines the three major impacts of land development decisions--employment, housing, and property values. He describes how development decisions intended to increase job opportunities often ignore variables such as residence choices. He also contends that land-use models are largely inefficient in assessing potential development impacts, describing their high costs as well as pitfalls associated with them. Muller stresses the importance when evaluating a project of considering employment, income, and housing effects concurrently, as these variables are difficult to separate.

Newman, Peter “Planning in an Age of Uncertainty,” for Urban Planning Seminar, Hobart, Australia: Hobart Metropolitan Councils Association, 12 November 1993.
Newman begins by outlining several important values for the planner in the post-modern world. In a stark repudiation of modernism, Newman emphasizes the importance of the environment , social justice, heritage, public space, the urban economy and a sense of community in an age of uncertainty. Newman also stresses the importance of diversity to the planner, in styles of housing, transportation modes, use of fuels, infrastructural construction and culture. In remaining consistant to these goals Newman advocates that planners should incorporate elements of all three of post-modernism's predecessors (the Walking, Transit, and Auto cities) with heavy emphasis on developing a sense of community.

Parker, Jeffrey A. “Does Transportation Finance Influence Urban Form?” Transportation, Urban Form, and the Environment, Washington, DC:Federal Highway Administration, 1991, pp. 43-62.
Parker suggests transportation no longer is the sole catalyst for economic development, nor is it the key to reversing decentralization in the location decisions of firms and households. Given this, Parker stresses the importance of improved budgeting decisions and focusing on high-benefit projects, as well as a cautious reliance on public-private partnerships as funding sources. Resources should be channeled through technological innovation to meet consumer preferences.

Pas, Eric I., "The Urban Transportation Planning Process,” in The Geography of Urban Transportation (Susan Hanson, ed.), New York: The Guilford Press, 1986.
This chapter provides an overview of urban transportation planning over the last thirty years, which Pas contends has hardly been one consistant "plan" following the rational model but rather a dynamic, ever-evolving reponse to demographic and social changes and geographic realities. Pas does apply a loose framework which has endured and in which most planning fits (pre-analysis, modeling and technical analysis, post-analysis) and emphasizes the need for transportation planning to be forward-looking as a major contributor to urban and regional development.

Plane, David A., “Urban Transportation: Policy Alternatives,” in The Geography of Urban Transportation (Susan Hanson, ed.), New York: The Guilford Press, 1986.
Plane begins by explaining what the goals of urban transportation policy have been--initally to meet ever-increasing auto use by expanding supply, and more recently, a manipulation of demand to maximize existing transportation facilities. Plane contends that the character of urban transportation problems has remained constant, but policy-makers perceptions of how to solve them has changed. In this vein he describes crisis-driven management, future-oriented planning, planning to maximize growth, and normative/social goal oriented planning. Across this planning paradigm Plane describes ways of manipulating both transportation supply and demand in the post "highway laying epoch".

Porter, Douglas R., "Regional Governance of Metropolitan Form," in The Geography of Urban Transportation (Susan Hanson, ed.), New York: The Guilford Press, 1986.
Porter contends that despite the dominance of market forces in metropolitan development, there is a need for effective and empowered regional transportation governance structures to create more holistic and responsive transportation strategies. He describes some limiting factors for regional transportation governing bodies (including the continued reliance on state and federal funding and problems of integrating local jurisdictions) as well as similar shortcomings in the land use sphere. Porter concludes that growth management through the relation of land use and transportation decisions requires coordinated action on three key points--the use of regional demographic and economic projections strategically; synthesis of local planning toward regional reconciliation; and provision of feedback to local jurisdictions

Pushkarev Boris S. and Jeffrey Zupan, Public Transportation and Land-Use Policy, Bloomington, IN: Indiana University Press, 1977.
This comprehensive study relates the supply and demand of urban transit with the density needed to sustain it. It begins by examining five main factors affecting transit use--its characteristics in relation to its main competition, the auto; the positive relationship between density and transit use; expenditures necessary to sustain a system; the linkage of expanded service with expanded ridership; and ways of reducing costs. The authors take on the subject of shifts in demand relative to price; break down density effects by specific types of traveller, trip, and mode; and attempt to match service availability of each mode with prospective demand by density level, taking into consideration demand and supply side variables. Pushkarev and Zupan conclude with an array of potential policy applications to address a supply-demand equilibrium.

Shaw, John, “Transportation, Land Use, and Residential Choice,” Washington, DC: Transportation Research Board, 72nd Annual Meeting, January 10-14, 1993.
The author attempts to determine if newer models of planning based on higher densities and mass transit would have the demand to make them viable alternatives. Shaw uses hedonic pricing methods and residential satisfaction data in an attempt to derive consumer preferences for housing types and locations and the value they attach to dwellings. He leaves the question of willingness to live in high density locales unanswered, however, advocating further research in particular market segments.

Stutz, Frederick P. “Environmental Impacts,” in The Geography of Urban Transportation (Susan Hanson, ed.), New York: The Guilford Press, 1986.
Stutz begins by describing major environmental impacts stemming from transportation projects; namely noise pollution, air pollution, asthetic impacts, and effects on water quality and plant and animal species. He then proceeds into a description and evaluation of various valuation techniques and of cost-benefit analysis. Stutz concludes the chapter with a description of the relevance and methodology of an environmental impact statement. Stutz unfortunately never links specific transportation modes with the types of environmental damage they would incur and therefore leaves the reader without a framework for comparison.

Transportation Research Board, Transportation, Urban Form, and the Environment, Federal Highway Administration, 1992.
This collection of papers presented at a conference sponsored by the Federal Highway Administration covers such diverse topics as transportation finance, regional governance, and the linkage between land use and transportation. The resource papers are summarized in other entries.

Vesterby, Marlow and Ralph E. Heimlich, “Land Use and Demographic Change: Results from Fast-Growth Counties,” Land Economics, Vol. 67, No. 3, August 1991, pp. 279-291.
The authors contend that the dispersal of population since WW II has been the biggest driving force in changing land use in America. However, the charge that Americans are consuming land at a greater rate seems to be false, according to the researchers’ examination of “Fast-growing counties.” They find that population consumption rates are relatively constant during this period. They encourage policy makers to pay attention to changes in demographics because they argue that those have a strong influence on land use decisions and changes.
This study examines the effects of demographic changes on land consumption and metropolitan decentralization. It concludes from an analysis of two ERS data sets concerning fast growth counties in the U.S. that there was little change in marginal urban land consumption between 1960 and the early 1980’s. The perception of rapid decentralization, the authors argue, stems from the large-lot “early development” characteristic of non-metro fast growth counties. The authors show the primary cause restricting marginal increases to be declining household sizes during this period, combined with increased numbers of household formation. They warn, however, that slight changes in these demographic trends in combination with current preferences for detached housing on large lots, could increase overall land conversion.